Edward Greene Malbone, Drayton Hall, and three Drayton Sisters.
An Art History Essay
Introduction
Current society and culture is a multi-coloured confetti, distilled from the lives of those living, and of their ancestors. This essay addresses five pieces of that scattered confetti, to convert them from dim and anonymous, two-dimensional ancestors. into three-dimensional individuals, each with personality and a place in historical society..The research commenced with an Ebay purchase of five miniature portraits, one damaged; all five unidentified, and by unknown artists. The ultimate challenge for an art historian!
The first challenge was to determine, whether the five sitters were American, British, or European?Although four had surface dirt and one was cracked, it was felt there was sufficient underlying quality to justify such a risky purchase; to add to the American section of the Artists and Ancestors collection.
This was when the past experiences of a "collector's eye" became important. That "collector's eye" had decided they were early 19C American sitters. Thus, worth the risk of acquiring; in order to try to seek out suitable artist attributions. It was never anticipated that names might also be found for the identities of the five Americans, nor a sense of how and where they had fitted into 19C American social history.
American social history raises a minefield of emotions which are not addressed here. Suffice to say, the individual sitters were born after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, lived through the 1812-15 war, and had mostly died before the 1861-65 American Civil War. Their lives, and those of their ancestors, were affected by those tumultuous times, and some of their ancestors had held responsible positions.
Ultimately, it was possible to make artist attributions, and identify all five anonymous sitters, converting them into three-dimensional individuals, each with an identity, a history and a place in 19C American society. That research is available here, so historians can now build a social history for them.
The research process required, careful observation, methodical analysis, and deliberative logic; showing art history as a relevant training discipline for other types of investigation; criminal, scientific, historical, legal, or social. Seeking out all relevant facts, sorting and ordering those facts to get the best fit, and melding them with relevant circumstantial evidence, in order to prove the base proposition.
Drayton Hall
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| Drayton Hall |
The Daryton family were the builders and occupants pf Drayton Hall, Charleston, South Carolina, until the death of the last surviving family member in 1969, Charlotta Drayton (1884-1969). Drayton Hall, is currently described as The Oldest Plantation in the United Sates. This was the stately home of plantation owner John Drayton, who eventually acquired about 76,000 acres of landholdings, mostly throughout the South. Drayton Hall's 600-acre property, which included live oaks and formal gardens, was the centerpiece of his empire.
Much later, Charles Henry Drayton III (1814-52) died in 1852. His son, Charles Henry Drayton (1847-1915), inherited Drayton Hall, as a five-year-old child in 1852. Due to Drayton’s status as a minor, Drayton Hall was then managed by his uncle, John Drayton, until Charles became an adult at the end of the Civil War.
Drayton Hall had been spared during
the Civil War – though no one knows for sure why – and after the war John
Drayton contracted with strip miners to mine the river along their
property for phosphates. Phosphate mining was an industry pursued by
many Lowcountry planters after the collapse of rice growing following
the war due to the loss of slave labor.
By 1881 Charles Drayton (1847-1915),had created his own mining company, Charles H. Drayton and Company, and
Drayton Hall was the business site. The company operated until the
beginning of the twentieth century and included a narrow gauge railroad,
housing for employees, and an office. Charles Henry Drayton died in
1915. His town home changed hands over the following years, and though
it has undergone modifications, it retained its original integrity.
In 1919, the Drayton Hall Preservation Trust gathered with the Drayton family and friends to celebrate the 100th birthday of Charles (Charlie) H. Drayton (1919-2019) whose lifetime of work towards the preservation and protection of Drayton Hall remains a cornerstones upon which Drayton Hall has persevered to the present. Charlie and brother Frank (1923 – 1979) inherited Drayton Hall upon the death of their aunt Charlotta Drayton in 1969. They were the seventh generation of Drayton’s to own Drayton Hall and thereafter aimed to see the internationally significant site preserved as a historic resource for future generations.
Drayton House is an historic building in Charleston, and Wikipedia includes an interesting anecdote about family heirlooms at the home, which may help explain the discontinuity of family history, and the subsequent scattering of ownership of the group of five miniature portraits.
Eliza and Charles Drayton officially moved into the Drayton House by late 1885 with their young daughters: Mary “May” Middleton Drayton (1874-1899), Eliza “Bessie” Drayton (1878-1918), Charlotta Drayton (1884-1969). A son, Charles Henry Drayton, Jr. (1887-1941), would shortly arrive by 1887. The Drayton family retained ownership of the Drayton House for over eighty years, spending most of the year in the new waterfront residence, summering in the mountains of Flat Rock, North Carolina, and escaping for a few months to Drayton Hall on the Ashley River.
On September 4, 1969, the dwelling’s final and longest Drayton family resident died of congestive heart failure at the age of 84. Upon Charlotta Drayton’s death, several Drayton family heirlooms and antiques were found in the Drayton House attic. Among many significant pieces of eighteenth-century furniture were forty-eight watercolors by famed eighteenth-century artist and naturalist George Edwards (1694-1773), initially purchased by John Drayton (c. 1715-1779) in 1733. The paintings are now part of the Drayton Hall Preservation Trust collection.
The Miniatures
Detailed research has been underway into several new arrivals; a cracked miniature of a man, ds 1566, and also ds 1571, which is a group of four early American miniatures.
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| Cracked miniature - ds 1566 |
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| Four miniatures - ds 1571 |
The four were described by the vendor,
"Family group of finely painted early 19th century portrait miniatures. These were purchased from a Drayton Family descendant (Charleston, SC). One line of family was in Philadelphia, Pa (Emily Drayton Taylor), so I am not exactly sure where these were done. These are as found - housed in later 19th century frame. Portraits themselves have some surface dirt. Please look to photos for condition."
Although the vendor advertised they were from 1830, and on "paper", it seemed to this collector they were more likely on ivory. And that the three ladies dated to a period, some decades earlier than the young man.
In the 18C white dresses were the norm in wealthy families, with many servants. This began to change around 1800, wit the rise of the merchant classes, who began to amass new fortunes based upon the supply of uniforms, victuals, weapons, and other military equipment to the large armies and navies involved in the Napoleonic Wars. Initially, with fewer servants, the prudent wives of these merchants recognised the limitations of white dresses. Accordingly, there was a gradual change in fashion to black dresses, such that by the time of the 1812 American War, white dresses were uncommon.
The life and works of Edward Greene Malbone, 1777-1807
In his biography, Tolman presents;
p. 79-82, a List of 100 unconfirmed and/or unlocated works.
p. 83-122, a Facsimile of Malbones' Account Book.
p.125-263, an illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of 471 works.
p.264-273 a Checklist of 62 mis-attributed or doubtful works.
Nothing matching the framed miniatures was found in pages 125-273, suggesting, if painted by Malbone, the framed miniatures, should appear in pages 79-122.
That there were three women in a single frame, implied a single commission, and Tolman was searched for multiple commissions painted by Malbone, c.1800-07, listed in his Account Book, and painted in Charleston. Three such Account Book groups with c.1802 references to Charleston were found.
Account Book, page 35, "Mrs F Rutledge, 4 in one piece", and "Mrs Gibbs and daughters, 3".
Account Book, page 36, "Mrs T. Hayward, 3", and on the same page, "Miss Maria Hayward".
In his accounts Malbone had written Mrs Gibbs, but more likely he meant Mrs Gibbes, a lady from a prominent local family. Similarly Malbone had recorded Hayward for Heyward.
In Tolman, Mrs Rutledge is recorded as item 75 on page 81; Mrs Gibbs as item 38 on page 80, and s confusing reference to multiple unlocated miniatures for Mrs Hayward on page 186. Thus it was deemed necessary to consider the Charleston families of all three, Mrs Rutledge, Mrs Gibbs, and Mrs Hayward, in seeking three sisters or cousins, who might have been painted by Malbone in c.1802.
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| Note on page 186 |
Tolman does refer to three 1802 miniatures for Mr Sinkler of Charleston, on page 245, but at least one of these was a man, image 395 Mr Sinkler. The other two were unlocated by Tolman, but it is possible.one of them is a similar miniature in this collection, as has been attributed to Malbone ds 730.
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| ds 730 |
In 1802, the three ladies in the miniature portrait group seem aged around 17 to 30, so thus were born c.1770-85. Although Mrs Rutledge, Mrs Gibbs, and Mrs Hayward needed to be researched, to see if they had commissioned the Malbone portraits, a start was made with the miniatures of the two men.
The Cracked Miniature, and the Miniature of Another Man
Although there remains uncertainty, the cracked and smudged, miniature, 60mm x 45mm is now attributed to Benjamin Trott, and was painted c.1820. Trott painted many miniatures of men with tousled hair, similar neck-wear, and a largely plain background. As with the comparative examples below, one of which, ds 1476, is included elsewhere in this Artists and Ancestors collection.
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| Example 2 |
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| Cracked miniature - ds 1566 |
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| Example 1 |
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| ds 1476 |
After facing difficult economic times in Philadelphia, Trott traveled south in late 1819 to try his luck with portrait commissions. He spent time working in Charleston during the winter of 1819-20.
During this southern tour, fellow painters noted that Trott was working alongside other notable artists in the city, such as Charles Fraser and Samuel F.B. Morse. Historical accounts suggest that Trott's work in the city featured prominently alongside these peers.
If ds 1566 was painted in Charleston in c.1820, it would fit with the neck-wear in the portrait, and reveal the sitter as a red-headed Charleston man aged 30-35, who was born c. 1785-95..
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| Charles Drayton II (1785-1844) |
When the miniature was removed from the dag case, an inscription was found on the inside backing of the case. Written in pencil on a dark background, requires a raking light to see it, but it reads as a farewell, "Remember me Mary when I am goin [gone?] and you dont see me any more." Suggesting his wife, or sweetheart, was named Mary? Subsequent research showed the name Mary, fits with Mary Middleton (Shoolbred) Drayton (1794 - 1855) who married Charles Drayton II (1785-1844) in 1813.
It therefore seemed a reasonable base assumption, and one which fits with more research below, that the cracked miniature is of Charles Drayton II . The "farewell" inscription inside the daguerreotype case is then poignant, as it was written by the sitter, Charles Drayton II. That type of case, with a fabric liner, and an ornate bezel only became available for purchase around 1840-45. Charles Drayton II died in 1844, so the inscription was made shortly before his death, likely with knowledge death was imminent. The miniature having been painted before that date, but with a suitable dag case hurriedly purchased. As it was not then repaired, perhaps the miniature became cracked at a later stage, due to shrinkage.
The cracked portrait seems to be a man dated to around 1815-20, and the other man to around 1845-50. Significantly, both men have red hair, and so, coming from a Drayton estate, could be father and son. Possibly Benjamin Trott painting the father, and the younger man perhaps painted by Charles Fraser.
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| Charles Henry Drayton III (1814-52) |
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| Charles Drayton II (1785-1844) |
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The red-headed pair seem thus to be likely Drayton relations or descendants of the red-headed, William Henry Drayton (1742-1779), as shown here In reviewing Drayron family trees it was noted that a brother of William Henry Drayton, was Captain Charles Drayton Sr. (1743-1820), the father of Henry Drayton , Caroline Drayton , Henrietta Augusta Drayton , Charlotte (Drayton) Manigault and Charles Drayton II Also of Maria Henrietta Drayton From family trees, the dates of his six children were;
Henry Drayton (1774-?) (deceased)
Caroline Drayton (1779-?), (deceased).
Henrietta Augusta Drayton (1780-1861) spinster.
Charlotte Drayton Manigault. (1781-1855) (she had 8 children)
Maria Henrietta Drayton (1784-1826) (m. Lewis Ladson Gibbes (1771-1828) in 1809, 3 children?)
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| Charles Henry Drayton III (1814-52) |
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| Charles Henry Drayton (1814-52) |
At this point, it was deduced that the three ladies and Charles Drayron III were reframed, as above, around 1845, shortly after the death of Charles Drayton II. Whether Charles Drayton II had been included in a previous frame with his three sisters, is unknown.
The Four Miniatures
The group of four miniatures in a single frame, was acquired from the same Raleigh, NC, vendor as the cracked miniature, with whom, there was this exchange, before the group of miniatures arrived;
Hello,
Thank you for accepting my offer. I have collected American
miniatures for many years, and although I do not know which artist
painted these, they are a nice group! Any thing extra, you can tell me
about the source would be much appreciated.
The vendor replied;
They are really great I was hoping someone would be able to identify the artist, because I never could with any certainly. I actually have a fair bit of provenance with these. They descended in the family of Emily Drayton Taylor (1860-1952), who was a miniature artist herself, but much later than these were done. Based on the grouping, I'm fairly certain they depict ancestors rather than something she collected. The family line split off in a few directions so I was never able to triangulate who the sitters are. The other miniature you bought from me came through the same family. I suspect they were done in Charleston as most of the other things I got from the family came through the Drayton line there. Hope that helps, let me know if you have any other questions.
Hi ....
Thank
you very much for that extra information, (also for selling me the
cracked miniature, which I hope to have restored) it is all very
helpful. My current inclination is that the three ladies are sisters,
and, so far, the most likely artist may be Thomas Sully or perhaps James
Tooley. It is unusual for American miniatures of women to have "misty
clothing" as the base of the portrait. (John Henry Brown sometimes did,
but I doubt t they are by him.) However, from some Googling, Thomas
Sully seems to have painted several miniatures with a "misty footing". I
tend to feel the three "sisters" were painted at an earlier date, say
pre-1830, than the two "brothers" who were more likely 1840 or later.
Kind regards,
Don
As noted above, initially, Thomas Sully (1783-1872) had seemed a candidate for the artist painting the three ladies,, but he painted few miniatures, and c.1800 seemed too early for him. Also Henry Benbridge had painted before 1800.
The most famous artist working in Charleston c.1800=02 was Edward Greene Malbone (1777-1807), who visited the area several times from north-east States. Malbone is researched and discussed in detail in, The Life and Works of Edward Greene Malbone:by Ruel P. Tolman (1909-64), NYHS, 1958.
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| Miniatures of three ladies attributed to Edward Greene Malbone, with a later young man |
Emily Drayton Taylor
As the vendor had referred to Emily Drayton Taylor, initial research within Tolman's work on Malbone was directed towards the Drayton and Taylor families. With the realisation that Heyward also appeared in the name of Emily Heyward Drayton Taylor, Heyward became significant. The vendor having advised that all five miniatures came from an estate with connections to Emily Heyward Drayton Taylor
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| Heirlooms in Miniature |
Emily Heyward Drayton Taylor (1860-1952), an American miniature painter, born in Philadelphia, the daughter of Henry Edward Drayton, a Philadelphia physician, and Mary Brady Drayton. She married neurologist Dr. John Madison Taylor in 1879. Taylor studied art under Cécile Ferrère-Guérin in Paris, likely in the 1870s, and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in 1877. She painted over 400 miniature portraits. One of her works, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is a copy of a work by Edward Greene Malbone, a painting of the eye of Maria Miles Heyward Drayton, her paternal grandmother.
Taylor was the founding president of the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters, serving from 1901 to 1951. She wrote the chapter "Miniature Painting as an Art" for the book Heirlooms in Miniatures (1898) by Anne Hollingsworth Wharton, the first book on the history of American miniatures. Emily Drayton Taylor died on June 19, 1952, in Philadelphia at the age of 92.
A breakdown of her immediate lineage includes:Parents: Dr. Henry Edward Drayton (1823–1862) and Mary Braby Drayton (1835–1910). Her paternal grandmother was Maria Miles (Heyward) Drayton, which explains the "Heyward" in her name.
However, when it was recognised Emily Drayton Taylor resided in Philadelphis, rather than in Charleston, and as a result of the further research below, it appeared Emily Drayton Taylor was only remotely connected to the Charleston miniature portraits, and so of little assistance in identifying the sitters.
Mrs Gibbs.
As noted above, a link seemed established to Mrs Gibbs, as Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred 1775-1808). There is a little later, miniature portrait of Mary Gibbes Middleton, as shown here in a French style, said to be c.1803, but likely closer to 1810, by Jean Francois de la Vallee. Malbone had died by the time this was painted by Vsllee, and the portrait is in the Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston..
In seeking a link to Malbone's account book, it was noted that he recorded miniatures of "Mrs Gibbs & daughters 3, (crossed out) 1802, Charleston" on his page 35-15. Tolman does include references to the Gibbs family of New York, and of Newport, but, for Charleston, Malbone had more likely meant Mrs Gibbes, from the prominent Gibbes family.
Malbone had recorded miniatures of "Mrs Gibbs & daughters 3, (crossed out) 1802, Charleston" on his Account book, page 35-15;. There is no obvious reference to Mrs Gibbs in Heirlooms in Miniature, so more research was needed.
Mrs Gibbs seems thus Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred (1775-1808), a descendant of Robert Gibbes (1732-94); although a match of the apparent ages of the three women in the miniatures, was not immediately obvious within her family tree. The possibilities, although not as daughters, were; Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred (1775-1808), herself, and also, Juliet Georgiana (Gibbes) Elliott (1778-1850). With the third, possibility being, Ann Morgan Gibbes (1772-1812), the wife of Thomas Stanyarne Gibbes (1770-1798). Raising a possibility, that Mrs Gibb[e]s commissioning the 1802 miniatures was widow, Ann Morgan Gibbes. However, the relationships did not appear close enough.
But, as noted above, it was then possible the writer of the farewell message to Mary, was Charles Drayton II (1785-1844), who had married Mary Middleton (Shoolbred) Drayton (1794-1855). It was next decided to look for any sisters related to Charles Drayton II. As noted above his siblings included;
Henry Drayton (1774-?) (deceased)
Caroline Drayton (1779-?), (deceased).
Henrietta Augusta Drayton (1780-1861)
Charlotte Drayton Manigault. (1781-1855)
Maria Henrietta Drayton (1784-1826)
However, there was an immediate complication. There is a famous Malbone miniature portrait of Charlotte Drayton Manigault (1781-1855), where the original now resides within the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
She is there described as Mrs Joseph Manigault, with a very similar hair-style and profile, to the sitter in the second miniature in the frame; so much so, that they appear to be the same person.
The page 267 of Tolman, of Charlotte Drayton thus needs some comment. That miniature is recorded in the Account book of Malvone at 32-16, as Feb-Apr 1801, "Mrs J. Manigault, 1." and was likely commissioned by her husband.
The explanation seems that the image on page 267 was painted by Malbone in 1801, and the likeness was so much admired, that a year later it was decided to have portraits of all three sisters, as were then painted by Malbone, in 1802.
There now appear to be two Malbone miniatures of Charlotte Drayton Manigault, one painted in 1801, and a second in 1802.
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| Charlotte Drayton Manigault |
The birth-dates of the sisters then fit with the probable ages of the three sitters in the 1802 miniatures:
Henrietta Augusta Drayton (1780-1861) - so in 1802 aged 22
Charlotte Drayton Manigault. (1781-1855) - so in 1802 aged 21
Maria Henrietta Drayton (1784-1826) - so in 1802 aged 18.
At this point it is speculation, but perhaps the three miniatures of ladies in the frame, were inherited by a family member, together with the cracked miniature of Charles Drayton II. With the fourth miniature in the panel, of Charles Drayton III, being painted after the 1844 death of his father Charles Drayton II, and then incorporated in a mid-19C re-framing of the group portrait..
The mother of the Drayton sisters, Hester Middleton (1754-1789), had died before 1800.Thus, the Malbone entry on page 35-15, "Mrs Gibbs & daughters 3, (crossed out) 1802, Charleston" is now believed to refer to a relation of Hester Middleton, Mrs Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred, arranging for Malbone to paint miniature portraits of the three sisters of her son-in-law, Charles Drayton II (1785-1844): i.e. Henrietta Augusta Drayton (1780-1861), Charlotte Drayton Manigault (1781-1855), and Maria Henrietta Drayton (1784-1826)..
In addition, the "crossed out" by Malbone was likely as he realised the "daughters" he had written was incorrect, and he should have written "sisters"..The young sisters were unable to commission Malbone to paint their portraits, so probably asked Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred to make arrangements.
Mrs F Rutledge
Mrs F Rutledge was an alternative, as. Malbone recorded "Mrs F, Rutledge - 4 in one piece" on his page 35-15. This description seems to fit the "in one piece" group of miniatures, but it was difficult to find any potential female candidates for the miniature portraits within her family tree
Rutledge was the name of a patriot, John Rutledge (1730-1800). Mrs F Rutledge may thus be Harriott Pinckney (Horry) Rutledge: who was married at age 26, 11 Oct 1797 in Charleston, South Carolina, to Frederick Rutledge (1771-1824). There appears to be a reference to Mrs F Rutledge on pp.150 and 151 of Heirlooms in Miniature, by Anne Hollingsworth Wharton, Philadelphia, J. P.Lippincott, 1898..
While in Charleston, during his first visit and his later residence there, Malbone painted miniatures of the Pinchneys, Sinklers, Manigaults, Hugars, Middletons, Rutledges, Poinsetts, Izards, and other South Carolinians.
Via serendipity, Mary Shubrick features in a miniature portrait elsewhere in this collection, ds 1330, attributed to Charles Fraser; as Mary Branford Shubrick (1759-1832), the wife of Colonel Thomas Shubrick (1756-1810).
Mrs T Heyward.
Mrs T Heywars was another possible alternative, as on page 36, Malbone records, Mrs T. Hayward, 3 miniatures, and on the same page, Miss Maria Hayward. The Malbone reference to Mrs T. Hayward, was probably Mrs Thomas Hayward, second wife of Thomas Heyward Jr. (1746-1809) an American Founding Father, lawyer, jurist, and politician. Heyward was active politically during the Revolutionary Era. As a member of the Continental Congress representing South Carolina, he signed the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation. Heyward's imprisonment in Florida by the British for nearly a year and the loss of a considerable number of slaves led to his being proclaimed a martyr of the revolution. At one time, the Heyward family had the largest slave-holding in the United States.
Thomas Heyward was married twice, at age 26 and at age 40, and each wife was named Elizabeth. His first wife, born in 1753, was the daughter of Colonel John and Sarah Gibbes Mathews and the sister of South Carolina governor John Mathews. She died in childbirth in 1782 in Philadelphia, where she had gone to be with Heyward upon his release as a prisoner of war. They had six children, but only one son, Daniel, survived childhood. His second wife, Elizabeth Susannah Savage (1769-1833), was daughter of Colonel Thomas and Mary Elliott Savage of Charleston. They had three children who lived to adulthood: Thomas, William and Elizabeth, but only one daughter..
It therefore appears, the three miniatures for Elizabeth Susannah Savage (Mrs Thomas Heyward), commissioned from Malbone in 1802, could not be of her own daughters, and less probably were three sisters or cousins, commissioned on behalf of a close relative.
A review of the siblings of Elizabeth Susannah Savage, does not reveal they had female children born c. 1770-85 who would have been of the appropriate age. Nor, among her husband's Heyward family are there any obvious siblings comprising three sisters. Additionally, the Philadelphia reference seems to rule out Charleston miniatures. Thus a Heyward connection to the three miniatures was discounted.
The Drayton Sisters
The above research has now indicated Mary Gibbes (Middleton) Shoolbred 1775-1808), as the more likely, and stronger, link to commissioning Malbone to paint the miniatures of three Drayton sisters, and believed to be those shown below. The three miniature portraits in ds 1571, each being 73mm x 57mm, are shown with, for comparison, nine similar miniatures by Malbone; as illustrated in The Life and Works of Edward Greene Malbone.
A "clincher" in the identification of the Drayton sisters, is that two sisters, Henrietta Augusts and Maria Henrietts, have hair falling to their shoulders, as a sign that, in 1802, they were then unmarried; whereas Charlotte's raised hair, was a sign she had already married. Raised hair, as a sign of marriage, is a detail in common to most of the other nine Malbone miniature portrait examples below.
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| Henrietta Augusta Drayton (1780-1861) |
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| Charlotte Drayton Manigault. (1781-1855) |
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| Maria Henrietta Drayton (1784-1826) |
A Drayton family tree kindly posted on the Internet by Bill Grimke-Drayton helps show where the miniatures fit. In the centre is a row showing the eight children of Hester Middleton (1754-1789). Her four surviving children are belived represented in the miniature portraits: Henrietts Augusta, Charlotte, Maria Henrietta, and Charles II. The gil\rls painted by Malbone in 1802, and Charles II painted by Trott c.1820. The fifth miniature is Charles III, a son of Charles II, and painted by Charles Fraser in c.1845.
The above essay helps to illustrate the old adage;
"If you don't know where you are coming from, how can you tell where you're going?"
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Expert comments on this research are welcome.
